(Top of page)| 5. | THE INITIAL OBSERVING SYSTEMS FOR PHYSICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR GOOS/GCOS |
Section 5 provides an overview of the need for ocean observations for climate as expressed by GCOS and the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technical Advice (SBSTA) of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) as well as the recommendations of COP-4 in Buenos Aires in November, 1998. This is followed by a summary description and analysis of the capabilities and structure of the existing international observational and data management mechanisms that are described in detail in Sections 3 and 4 and which are available for the implementation of the GOOS/GCOS observing system (Section 5.2). The need for a modified and more unified structure are discussed. In Section 5.3, the main observation types, in particular, surface, subsurface and sea-level, are examined in terms of their implementation requirements and factors that must be taken into account for GOOS/GCOS to facilitate implementation are suggested. In Section 5.4 the proposed OOS is examined in terms of the observing system applications and goals and how these relate to the implementation process. The status of specific surface networks is presented as are pilot projects and a number of emerging observation systems that might in the future become part of the IOS are also presented. Cross-cutting issues and a list of recommendations and actions are given in Sections 5.4 and 5.5.
| 5.1 | THE STATEMENTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF SBSTA AND COP-4 |
5.1.1 In preparation for COP-4, SBSTA was requested to consider the adequacy of the relevant global observing systems. To meet this requirement, GCOS prepared a report for SBSTA (GCOS-48) which formed the basis of SBSTA's report to COP-4 at its meeting in Buenos Aires, 2 to 14 November, 1998. It includes the following general statement:
5.1.2 "This report concludes that many of the observational requirements are generally known and documented and that many are in place, but need substantial augmentations and enhancements to fully serve climate purposes. Fortunately many of the techniques needed to obtain the measurements are currently available and cost effective, and an appropriate intentional infrastructure has been identified to facilitate the collection and distribution of climate-related observations.
5.1.3 What is urgently needed is commitment by nations to provide global coverage for the key variables, to reverse the degradation of existing observing systems, and to exchange information more effectively. It is recommended that each Party should undertake programmes of systematic observations in accordance with national plans, which they should develop in concert with the overall strategy for global climate observations. A positive response to this challenge would significantly advance the implementation of an effective observing system for climate and support the objectives of the FCCC."
5.1.4 Regarding ocean observations SBSTA provided a general recommendation and several more explicit findings. They are, using the notation of GCOS-48:
5.1.5 On receipt of the report from SBSTA, COP-4. at its meeting in November 1998, included in its Decisions two that have direct relevance to the implementation of the GOOS/GCOS OOS. Decision 2 focuses on the role that the Global Environment Facility (GEF) should play in providing funding to the developing country Parties to broadly develop their capability to participate in systematic observational networks to reduce scientific uncertainty relating to the causes, effects, magnitude and timing of climate change as well as to address general aspects of climate change and its impacts. Decision 14 more directly addresses GCOS and its partner programmes (GOOS and GTOS) and among other things "urges Parties to actively support national oceanographic observing systems, in order to ensure that the elements of the Global Climate Observing System and Global Ocean Observing System networks support of ocean climate observations are implemented, to support, to the extent possible, an increase in the number of ocean observations, particularly in remote locations, and to establish and maintain reference stations.
5.1.6 The full text of COP-4 Decisions 2 and 14 are included in Annex IV.
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| 5.2 | SYSTEM ANALYSIS |
5.2.1 The existing operational and data management mechanisms that can be used for the implementation of the GOOS/GCOS ocean observing system are those described in detail in Sections 3 and 4 . A table summarizing the structure and capabilities of the former (CMM, IGOSS, SOOPIP, GLOSS, DBCP and TIP) is given in Annex V. For further details, refer to Section 3. It is clear that they have, in some cases widely, different reporting structures, responsibilities, level of quality control procedures, data transmission and archiving mechanisms, and approaches to capacity building. These differences do not reflect on their ability to carry out the tasks for which they were put in place, but rather that they have developed over time to meet a variety of research and operational requirements and have not been formed to address a single integrated observation system such as the GOOS/GCOS observing system. Indeed, most of these implementation mechanisms have some responsibility or coordination role for observations that may be of the same type, or from the same class of instrument, as the observations of the GOOS/GCOS OOS but which are collected for other reasons, for example research, and which may be of short duration or undergo quality control procedures inappropriate for GOOS/GCOS.
5.2.2 A similar table has not been prepared for the data management and exchange mechanisms given in Section 4 (the WWW, IODE and GTSPP) but it can be seen from Section 4 that the same diversity in structure and purpose exists. It is for this reason that a Joint WMO-IOC Technical Commission on Oceanography and Marine Meteorology (JCOMM) has been proposed by the organizers of the GOOS/GCOS IOS and provisionally accepted by the IOC and WMO awaiting final formal approval. Its proposed form and function are described in Section 6. Its origin arises from the need to implement the GOOS/GCOS OOS in as rational and coordinated way as possible.
| 5.3 | OBSERVATION CATEGORIES ISSUES |
5.3.1 For the purpose of the implementation of the ocean observing system for GOOS/GCOS, it is convenient to separate the elements as given in Section 2.1 into those that concern the surface, the upper ocean and the global sea level. This would be done within the structure of JCOMM. In this section, the characteristics of the observations and the implementation requirements for each of these categories is discussed. The same headings are used, where appropriate, as are used for the analysis in Section 5.2 and Annex V of implementation mechanisms. To some extent the analysis is redundant, especially for the surface and upper/subsurface ocean, which is to be expected since many aspects and difficulties with the implementation of the components of the observing system are common.
| 5.3.2 | Surface Observing System |
Status: The elements of the surface observing system are specified in Section 2.1 based on the OOSDP report as modified and given increased detail by the OOPC.
Observation networks: Required are satellite AVHRR and in situ observations for SST; satellite scatterometer and VOS and buoy observations for surface winds; the products of NWP models and regional in situ verification for the fluxes of heat and fresh water; in situ VOS and buoy observations of pCO2; satellite and regional in situ observations for sea ice extent concentration and thickness; and drifter surface velocity. For more detail of surface sampling requirements, see Section 2.1. These requirements can partly be met by some of the observations obtained through CMM, IGOSS, SOOP, DBCP and TIP as well as the availability of specific satellite data and the best NWP products. In addition, there is the need for additional observations where existing coverage is inadequate in space and/or time. There is a need to develop a strategy to pull together the relevant parts of the various systems and to influence them where necessary to meet GOOS/GCOS standards and continuity requirements. Only the CMM has regulatory powers.
Scientific support: The principle support could be provided by the SCOR/WCRP Air-Sea Working Group if it is given the appropriate mandate and includes broad enough expertise. The OOPC also provides oversight scientific support.
Data management system: As listed in Annex V and Sections 3 and 4, the international structure provides mechanisms for data flow, quality control and archiving for most of the required data. However, these are often not coordinated with each other and may not be close to either those that collect the data or those that will use it. Obtaining estimates of the surface fluxes, for example, requires several basic observations and an integrated data flow.
Quality Control: Although the international implementation mechanisms all include some level of quality control, there is a need to ensure that there is quality control by those close to the data stream and that scientific level quality control is built into the system.
Data archiving: Archives exist for most of the surface data, but for some, for example surface waves, no single archive exists. Metadata must be kept in archives. Standardized formats allowing easy use of data from different archives should be considered.
Resources (programme support): The international agencies do provide some level of programme support that can be used for the implementation of the GOOS/GCOS observing system but as can be seen from Annex V present support is marginal and will need strengthening for the implementation of the full observing system.
Resources (operational network): The resources to put the operational network in place can only come from nations. There is a need internationally to set priorities and to focus and co-ordinate national contributions in the most effective direction. The GOOS/GCOS surface observing system cannot be fully implemented without new resources.
Capacity building: Capacity building can for the most part be carried out using the mechanisms available to the operational agencies and noted in Annex V. There is a need for more international and/bilateral resources for capacity building. as well as for a strong effort to make all nations aware of the benefits from participation in the GOOS/GCOS IOS
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| 5.3.3 | Upper Ocean Observing System |
Status: The elements of the upper ocean observing system are specified in Section 2.1 based on the OOSDP report as modified and given increased detail by the OOPC. This has been done in consultation with the CLIVAR UOP.
Observation networks: Description of the upper ocean is dependant on the elements of the surface observing system given above. In addition, the requirement is for vertical profiles of T in the broadcast mode from SOO and Argo, as well as from TAO locations and in regions of special significance. Regarding SOOP lines, in general priority needs to be given to lines with established good-quality records. Vertical profiles of salinity are also a requirement, especially at high latitudes and parts of the tropics but are more difficult to obtain to the required accuracy operationally. Altimetry is also an element of the upper ocean observing system, as are repeat hydrography and time series stations. For more detail of upper ocean sampling requirements, see Section 2.1. IGOSS, SOOP, DBCP and TIP all have a role in implementing the upper ocean observing system.
Scientific support: The scientific support for the upper ocean observing system is provided by the OOPC and the CLIVAR UOP. The strategy for the implementation of Argo needs to be developed. In the future, the design of GODAE and its results can be expected to influence the upper ocean observing system. Argo has great potential for relatively inexpensive global upper ocean observations, especially if salinity accuracy can be established. The role of Argo vis-…-vis the traditional upper ocean hydrographic and XBT observations will need resolution in the future. GODAE itself will help determine the relative effectiveness of different observations in defining the (climate) state of the ocean.
Data management system: As listed in Sections 3 and 4, the international structure provides mechanisms for the flow, quality control and archiving of upper ocean data. In implementing the upper ocean observing system, the experience gained from the GTSPP and TAO is important. As Argo is implemented special additional data management questions may arise.
Quality control: In addition, to that provided by the international implementation mechanisms, there is the need to ensure that scientific level quality control is built into the system. The model used by WOCE and TOGA of an RNODC with a scientific institution for the quality control of a specific data type has merit (e.g. the co-operation between MEDS and AMOL regarding drifter data). Special quality control questions will arise from Argo.
Data archiving: International archives exist for the upper ocean data within the framework of the IODE. Consideration needs to be given to maintaining the ability to obtain a special GOOS/GCOS quality controlled data set within the general IODE system.
Resources (programme support): As for the surface observing system, full implementation of the upper ocean observing system will require additional support within the international operational mechanisms and for any special systems that need to be put in place for quality control or for Argo.
Resources (operational network): National support is required beyond that presently being provided for operational systems (such as the ENSO array in the tropical Pacific) or for research programmes that presently obtain substantial upper ocean observations. To obtain this support from nations there is a need to prioritize the elements of the observing system and to make sure nations are aware of the rewards of participation.
Capacity building: Much capacity building can be done within the existing international mechanisms. There is an overall need to attract users of the system by making the benefits of contributing clear.
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| 5.3.4 | Global Sea Level |
Status: The requirements for sea level as set out by the OOSDP and modified by the OOPC are given in Section 2.1. It addresses the different issues; namely, the determination of the change in ocean volume that can be the result of greenhouse gas warming, sea surface topography anomalies that arise from ocean variability on monthly to decadal time scales including that associated with ENSO and the NAO, and mesoscale variability.
Observation networks: Required for the determination of the change in ocean volume are a precision altimeter and a limited set (of order 50-60) of geocentrically positioned tide gauges both on ocean islands for altimeter calibration/validation and at the continental margin to identify tectonic effects. Required for the determination of sea surface topographic anomalies and mesoscale variability are one or more altimeters, one of which should be of precision accuracy, and tide gauges on islands in the region of interest (for example the western tropical Pacific). In the event that a precision altimeter is not operationally available in the long term, the requirement for tide gauges increases. By making sea level a separate observing category for the purpose of this action plan, only one of the implementation mechanisms, GLOSS, is involved.
Scientific support: The specific requirements have been established by the OOSDP and OOPC. The GLOSS Group of Experts has also provided both scientific and operational advice on the global tide gauge network and the TOPEX/POSEIDON community has mechanisms for providing advice on the scientific aspects of precision altimetry. For GOOS/GCOS it has been suggested that observing system design questions might be better addressed by a joint scientific panel of the OOPC and GLOSS. This proposition requires resolution. Since sea level variability is of importance to C-GOOS on time scales of seiches to those of climate change, there is a need to for a co-operative approach to the design of the network of coastal tide gauges. In this context it is worth noting that accurately connecting coastal tide gauges to the open ocean sea level variability as seen by precision altimeters requires continental shelf models that are not in general available.
Data management system: A new requirement is that the original GLOSS sea level data be sent to an International Centre as well as the monthly and annual means to PSMSL.
Quality control: Checked by tidal analysis, inspection of residuals and checking with 'buddy' sites.
Data archiving: Final archiving at PSMSL.
Resources (programme support): About one-half the time of an IOC staff member is assigned to GLOSS. The GOOS/GCOS requirements for (precision) altimetry and a reliable geocentrically positioned set of tide gauges will require consistent and capable programme support.
Resources (operational network): Tide gauges are supported by nations for a variety of mostly local reasons. A global network to meet GOOS/GCOS requirements requires tide gauges in locations where national interests may not choose to locate them, especially if the requirement includes the expense of continuous GPS location. Thus, mechanisms for supporting the global network are needed. In this respect the preferred location of the limited number of island and coastal tide gauges recommended by the OOSDP needs to be addressed by an expert group.
Capacity building: GLOSS carries out training sessions on the operation of tide gauges and has produced a number of manuals on related topics. As for other aspects of the GOOS/GCOS observing system, there is a need to increase local awareness of the importance and benefits of participating in GOOS.
| 5.3.5 | Additional Elements of the Observing System |
5.3.5.1 The analysis of the observing system in terms of its surface, upper ocean and sea level parts has the potential for ignoring elements of the observing system as presently designed by the OOSDP or in the future as technologies and understanding of the observing networks change, perhaps as the result of the findings of pilot projects.
5.3.5.2 Of immediate concern is that Section 2.1 includes hydrographic sections for the determination of changing ocean inventories and the transport of heat, fresh water and carbon, and of the production of watermasses in critical regions. It also includes reference to time series stations, some of which will be occupied as part of GOOS/GCOS. These have not been included in the analysis of the mechanisms for implementing the GOOS/GCOS observing system given above. The OOSDP report states that " .. the repeat hydrography and transocean sections of T, S, carbon and selected tracers have been listed as category 3 (elements to be added later) even though they are essential to attaining subgoals 3a and 3b. They lack some urgency because of the global coverage now being provided by WOCE and because their inclusion would require long term commitments (at least commitments with repeat terms of five to 10 years) that nations are unlikely to make to an operational observing system at this time." When, given the experience of WOCE, it is decided by the OOPC that it is time to initiate transocean hydrographic sections, it may be necessary to include additional implementation mechanisms similar to those used by WOCE and being continued by CLIVAR. For observation of the changing ocean inventory of carbon, the only global ship programme that can presently be seen to meet the requirement for a platform for carbon observations is the hydrographic section programme of GOOS/GCOS.
5.3.5.3 With the exceptions just noted, the division of the elements of the observing system into those concerning the surface, the upper ocean and global sea level would seem to facilitate oversight of its implementation in terms of common platforms, data streams, quality control issues, etc., as well as the interests of those scientists who must be involved in the process. Special characteristics and problems regarding for each type of observation will however remain and need to be accounted for in the implementation process.
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| 5.4 | NETWORK RATIONALE, STATUS, PILOT PROJECTS AND REGIONAL PROGRAMMES |
| 5.4.1 | Network Rationale |
5.4.1.1 This section partly serves as a reminder that the GOOS/GCOS OOS is not designed to meet the structure of the existing implementation mechanisms (Section 5.2) or the specific aspects of the surface, upper ocean and sea level observing systems (section 5.3). It has instead been designed and justified because of the requirements for information regarding various aspects of the climate system such as the observation of the change in ocean volume from greenhouse gas warming or the need for observations to initialize models for ENSO prediction. The left hand columns of Tables A and B in Annex II serve to emphasize the purpose for which various observations are obtained.
5.4.1.2 It is difficult to separate one climate concern that places demands on the observing system from another. Various variables provide input to a number of fundamental climate signals. Some variables such as SST, which is important in its own right as an indication of global warming, is required in the tropics for the initialization and verification of ENSO predictions and globally for the estimates of the surface heat flux. Thus, the division of the requirements for the elements of the observing system into a number of non-redundant unique climate problems or signals is not possible. In designing the IOS, the OOSDP decided to divide the requirements for a climate observing system into three goals each with a number of subgoals (OOSDP, 1995). The OOSDP based its priorities for elements of the observing system on the priorities given the subgoals. First priority was given to those elements necessary for the measurement of SST, the measurement of surface wind and wind stress, the initialization and validation of models for ENSO prediction, and for the measurement of the long-term change in global sea level due to greenhouse gas warming.
5.4.1.3 In some ways the OOSDP's choice of its goals follows the division in Section 5.3 into the surface, upper ocean and global sea level that are to be used for implementation. This will aid implementation but differences still exist between the OOSDP goals and current implementation proposals.
5.4.1.4 The first OOSDP goal addresses the ocean's surface and the subgoals concern the determination of a) SST, b) wind and wind stress, c) the surface fluxes of heat and fresh water, d) the surface flux of CO2, and e) the extent, concentration, volume and motion of sea-ice. The observations to meet these goals have been included in the discussion of surface observations in Section 5.3 and most are included in the responsibilities of the implementation mechanisms in Section 5.2. In this sense the OOSDP surface subgoals map easily onto the proposed implementation structure. However, the OOSDP also made use of feasibility- impact diagrams to describe the priority of various observed variables in meeting the subgoal's objectives. In some cases the observations appropriate for various regions of the global ocean are different (e.g., SST from drifters where VOS are not present). These differences need to be addressed in the implementation mechanism.
5.4.1.5 The second OOSDP goal addresses the upper ocean with subgoals addressing a) the global data required for monitoring, analyzing and understanding monthly to interannual temperature and salinity variations, b) the upper ocean tropical Pacific data necessary for the initialization and verification of models of models for ENSO prediction, and c) the upper ocean data outside the tropical Pacific for understanding and description of ocean variability and for the initialization and development of models aimed at climate prediction. For these subgoals, the upper ocean observations required are included in the upper ocean observation category in Section 5.3 and are mostly included in the responsibilities of the implementation mechanisms of Section 5.2. The OOSDP analysis not only provides priorities among the upper ocean variables but also describes which of the surface variables are required to meet particular upper ocean subgoals. These priorities and recommendations must be considered by the implementation mechanism.
5.4.1.6 The third OOSDP goal includes issues of the full-depth ocean and includes as subgoals a) the determination of the oceanic inventories of heat, fresh water and carbon, b) the determination of the changes in the oceanic circulation and its transport of heat, fresh water and carbon on long time scales, and c) the determination of the long-term change in sea level due to climate change. In this case the mapping of the requirements onto the categories of Section 5.3 and the implementation mechanisms of Section 5.2 is far from perfect. The requirement for long-term global sea level falls into the global sea level category and the responsibilities of GLOSS but GLOSS has broader sea level responsibilities. The determination of the full-depth oceanic budgets, circulation and transports requires data from the surface layer and from the upper ocean but also includes full depth hydrographic observations that, as noted in Section 5.3, do not necessarily fit easily within the proposed and existing implementation systems.
5.4.1.7 The OOSDP also included a fourth goal focussing on the need to provide the infrastructure and techniques, which will ensure that the information obtained is used in an efficient way. A synthesis will be achieved in a variety of ways including routine monitoring and analysis, improved climatologies and through model data assimilation. Subgoals addressed a) the need for improved climatologies, such as of temperature, salinity and carbon, especially for validating climate predictions and simulations at decadal and longer scales, b) the provision of data management and communication facilities for routine monitoring, analysis and prediction, and c) development of the facilities for processing assembled data sets and providing timely analyses, model interpretations and model forecasts. These integrated application and interpretation aspects of the observing system provide the mechanisms for ensuring that the benefits of the observations are realized to the greatest extent possible. They cannot be forgotten in the process of implementing the observing system.
5.4.1.8 The design of the observing system will evolve with time both because of changing understanding of the ocean climate system and changing technologies. Some changes from the OOSDP report are indicated elsewhere in this action plan. In addition, the priority placed on obtaining observations to meet certain goals may change as the result of evolving opportunities to provide needed products or changes in societal requirements. What is clear is that there must be an ongoing strong interaction between (1) the designers of the OOS and (2) those who apply its products with those concerned with its implementation described in this action plan.
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| 5.4.2 | Network Status |
5.4.2.1 Although much of the GOOS/GCOS OOS will require additional resources for its implementation, some elements of the system already exist in some regions of the global ocean. Figure A of Annex VI shows the location of VOS reporting surface marine meteorological observations on the GTS during May 1999. These observations are a contribution towards meeting the WWW requirements as listed in Section 2.2. As is typical of VOS data, it is received primarily from ships in the main shipping lanes. Figure B shows the position of drifting and moored buoys that reported on the GTS during the same period. One can note that in the Southern Ocean, where VOS reports are in general sparse, drifting buoys are essential for meeting the WWW requirements. Even in the Atlantic, for example, drifting buoys can fill gaps in VOS coverage such as in the large triangular region north of the equator that can be seen in Figure A. The location of the TAO array in the topical Pacific is also evident in the report locations.
5.4.2.2 Tables C, D and E provide a more detailed analysis of the reports of surface pressure, surface wind and SST respectively. The numbers shown in each Marsden square show the percentage of the WWW requirement of 8 observations daily that was obtained as well as the percentage of the reports that were obtained from buoys. It is striking that it is only in very limited region of the global ocean that the WWW requirements are met. The importance of buoy data over a substantial part of the globe is also evident. That most buoys do not report winds is also clear from the analysis. Many of the buoys are supported by research rather than operational funding.
5.4.2.3 The distribution of VOS reporting Bathy messages (temperature profile data mostly from XBTs) is shown in Figure F and the Marsden square analysis of the number of records is given in Figure G. Most of the ships are part of the network set up by WOCE and TOGA and being continued under CLIVAR. Once again the location of the TAO array in the tropical Pacific is evident in Figure F, as is its influence on the number of reports from the region in Figure G.
5.4.2.4 The distribution of TESAC (including salinity profile data in addition to temperature) reports for February 1999 is shown in Figure H and the Marsden square analysis is given in Figure I. With the exception of data from some buoys of the TAO array in the eastern Pacific most of the reports are from the North Atlantic. These are almost entirely from profiling floats deployed in the area for research purposes. They show the potential for data return in the event of the implementation of Argo. The stated benchmark of Section 2.1 for vertical temperature profiles is for a profile every 10 days on a horizontal scale of 250-300 km, which is ~30-40 profiles per month per Marsden square at mid-latitudes. Although the analysis of Figure I says nothing about the sampling frequency or the depth reached by individual profiling floats, it can be seen that the present research activity was approaching the requirement for profiles in some areas of the North Atlantic in February 1999. Globally, ~110 profiling floats are reporting on the GTS at the present time compared to the 3,000 required for the operational Argo system.
5.4.2.5 The implementation of the complete GOOS/GCOS OOS will require similar analyses as given here for all the observational elements.
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| 5.4.3 | Pilot Projects and New Technology |
5.4.3.1 During the development of the design of the GOOS/GCOS OOS, and its implementation, there are bound to be a sequence of systems that will be made operational for the first time, even though they may have been used extensively by large-scale research programmes. The Argo programme discussed below is one example of such a pilot project. Similarly, new instrumentation will replace existing instrumentation on various platforms that may themselves be improved. In this situation continuity of the observation and its calibration are important considerations. New observing system techniques will be developed that could be used to strengthen the OOS. The ATOC programme provides an example. However, it must be emphasized that, even if pilot projects are successful and new observational techniques are proven, there is no guarantee that they would be incorporated into the GOOS/GCOS OOS. The OOS must use the suite of instrumentation and analyses that provides the most cost effective end products given the overall goals and objectives for the OOS and their relative priorities.
GODAE
5.4.3.2 GODAE is a programme of the OOPC with the general objective "to provide a practical demonstration of real-time global ocean data assimilation in order to provide regular, complete depictions of the ocean circulation, at high temporal and spatial resolution, consistent with a suite of space and direct measurements and appropriate dynamical and physical constraints". It is not a research programme but a practical test of the ability to produce useful products derived from global ocean data assimilated into a skilful ocean model in order to derive greater benefit from the information.
5.4.3.3 GODAE is scheduled to be operational during the period 2003- 2005, but its influence on observing system design are already taking place through the activities of its participants. Although an initiative of the OOPC, GODAE has a measure of independence from existing scientific and operational programmes in order to allow freedom of development and to build GODAE resources. As a demonstration of the capability to use ocean data operationally it is truly a pilot project. If successful, it will enhance the value of the OOS and hopefully bring resources for its full implementation. It needs to be emphasized however that that the justification of the OOS is much broader and stronger than providing input to GODAE.
Argo
5.4.3.4 The primary goal of the global array of profiling floats, known as Argo, is to provide subsurface ocean information to complement and amplify the climate relevant information of the remote sensing network, especially the Jason-1 altimeter and its successors. Although recently driven by the requirements of GODAE, the use of profiling floats as part of the GOOS/GCOS IOS was seen as essential in the OOSDP report and their role is discussed in Section 2.1. The design emphasizes the need to integrate Argo within the overall framework of the GOOS/GCOS OOS. The initial implementation will be based on a design with around 300 km resolution, global deployment, a cycle time of around 14 days and an assumed lifetime of around 100 cycles.
5.4.3.5 Although profiling floats have been used extensively for research over the past few years (see 5.4.2.4), Argo provides the first attempt at global systematic deployment and serves as a pilot project for the long-term use of profiling floats within the OOS.
PIRATA
5.4.3.6 The Pilot Research Moored Array in the Tropical Atlantic (PIRATA) is designed as a counterpart of the TAO array in the tropical Pacific. The field phase began with the deployment of 2 moorings in 1997 and up to 12 moorings are envisioned to be in place during 1999 as part of a multinational effort involving Brazil, France and the United States. The array will provide well- resolved time series measurements of SST, salinity, surface heat and moisture fluxes, and subsurface thermal and current structure up to depths of 500 m. PIRATA is being used to assess the feasibility and composition of a more permanent observational effort in the tropical Atlantic within the context of CLIVAR. Its potential for inclusion in the GOOS/GCOS can be similarly based on its results.
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| 5.4.4 | Regional Programmes |
5.4.4.1 Some aspects of the physical observations of GOOS/GCOS are bound to be implemented regionally by groups of nations or agencies for practical reasons of sharing the task and obtaining the resources required. While this is more likely to be the case for physical ocean observations describing the continental shelves and regions such as the North Sea, it may also be the case for some of the global observations of the OOS. Three existing cases of such co-operation are briefly discussed here.
NEAR-GOOS
5.4.4.2 The North-East Asian Regional GOOS (NEAR-GOOS) programme is being implemented by China, Japan, the Republic of Korea and the Russian Federation as a WESTPAC project. It is intended to provide an operational demonstration of the usefulness of a regional ocean observing system in the achievement of its own specific goals and as a pilot project for other parts of the world. The region chosen is one of the most densely and frequently surveyed in the world and the programme is built upon the capabilities of the countries of the region to collect and exchange oceanographic data in near real-time. The oceanographic data for NEAR-GOOS include temperature, salinity, currents, waves, sea level, dissolved oxygen and nutrients.
5.4.4.3 Some of the more specific goals of NEAR-GOOS include improving regional ocean services, fishing vessel efficiency, pollution monitoring, the mitigation of natural disasters, and to provide the basic function of providing data sets required for data assimilation, modeling and ocean forecasting. An efficient data exchange service has been established and a real-time data base contains data from the past 30 days with a delayed mode data base containing the complete data set.
EuroGOOS
5.4.4.4 The European Association for the Global Ocean Observing System (EuroGOOS) was established in December, 1994 to maximize the benefits to Europe from operational oceanography within the framework of GOOS. Members of GOOS are agencies who share a common set of goals and aims and are committed to work under the terms of a Memorandum of Understanding. The goals are (1) to gain benefits from the last 50 years of investment in marine science and technology in Europe, (2) to create new operational marine service businesses and jobs, whose goods and services will improve the efficiency of industries presently contributing 200bn ECU per annum to the European GNP and (3) to contribute to the effective management of the environment on the global scale, by predicting the behaviour of the ocean and coastal seas. A Strategy for EuroGOOS was published in 1996 and a EuroGOOS Plan in 1997. The Plan identifies regional programmes with distinctive objectives and a Task Team to carry out the agreed programme of work.
5.4.4.5 Existing regional Task Teams include one for the Arctic Ocean with the objective to develop an operational monitoring and forecasting system for the Arctic marine region, to detect trends in sea ice parameters to help the prediction of climate change, to monitor sea ice parameters and dynamics as an aid to fishing, shipping and offshore industries, and to monitor the spread of algal blooms and contamination. The objectives for an Atlantic Ocean Task Team are, by building upon current investments in observing systems, assimilation methods and models on the scale of the Atlantic, to build, test and develop a preoperational eddy-resolving ocean modeling system that will be capable of supporting shelf and coastal modeling and providing open-ocean products. Other regions for which defined programmes exist include the Baltic Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, and the North West European Shelf.
WIOMAP
5.4.4.6 The Western Indian Ocean Marine Application Project (WIOMAP) is a developing regional project of the IOC and WMO to address the identified needs for improved and expanded marine meteorological and oceanographic services in support of living and non- living resource management, industrial development, marine pollution, disaster mitigation, climate monitoring, environmental protection and sea transport. The primary objective is the enhanced provision of operational meteorological and oceanographic data, products, services and advice through the development of operational marine services in the region based on applied research, the greater accessibility and exchange of marine data, enhanced marine modeling and forecast capabilities and enhanced personnel.
5.4.4.7 The project objectives are to be achieved on a co-operative regional basis among agencies and institutions in the countries concerned, which will allow economies of scale, improve overall regional co-operation and coordination, and eventually achieve a level of output and support to user communities beyond what could be realized working with individual countries individually.
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| 5.5 | CROSSCUTTING AND GENERIC ISSUES |
5.5.1 In Sections 5.2, 5.3, and 5.4, the capabilities of the implementation mechanisms to coordinate and oversee the implementation of the physical ocean observations of GOOS/GCOS have been examined, as has been the potential grouping of activities in terms of surface, subsurface and global sea level categories. In addition, it has been reiterated that the design of the observing system has been on the basis of the observations required to meet specified goals and subgoals addressing specified objectives such as initializing ENSO prediction models or observing changes in the ocean volume due to increasing greenhouse gasses. This section identifies a number of general issues that must be faced as the implementation mechanisms strive to meet the needs of GOOS/GCOS, initiate a new organizational structure and define their overall responsibilities. Particular initial actions to be taken are given in Section 5.6.
5.5.2 The first challenge to be faced is to balance the requirement for a cooperative unified approach to meet the pressing need to implement the physical ocean observations for GOOS/GCOS with the traditional, often platform-based, existing approach of the implementation mechanisms that in general have coordinated ocean observations obtained for a variety of reasons. In the case of climate, these have mostly been research and not operationally based.
5.5.3 The existing operational mechanisms have technical competencies and expertise, some of which is in particular special areas. This must not be lost in the larger structures, in particular JCOMM, needed to implement GOOS/GCOS.
5.5.4 There must be continual and clear advice on the requirements and priorities for the physical ocean observations of GOOS/GCOS provided to the operational mechanisms through JCOMM by the GSC and its scientific bodies. To the extent they are known the global ocean climate observations are specified in Section 2.1. Those required in the coastal zone will be provided in the future. The requirements will evolve with changing knowledge and technical capability but should only do so in a way that maintains the overall integrity of the observing system.
5.5.5 In many aspects, the requirement is for the transition from the coordination of primarily research based observations, often driven by the large research programmes such as WOCE, TOGA and CLIVAR, to a fully operational system of long-term systematic observations specified to meet GOOS/GCOS objectives. As noted in Section 5.3.5, some GOOS/GCOS observations are of the type that for the foreseeable future will require the direct participation of the scientific community acting within the framework of GOOS/GCOS and following the GOOS Principles. Some of these will require special structures for implementation, data quality control, and management such as the system of WOCE and TOGA DACs and SACS. Some of the latter may need to be folded into the JCOMM structure, other new structures will need to be put in place to manage, for example, the Argo pilot project of profiling floats which from its initiation will provide needed upper ocean data for GOOS/GCOS. JCOMM will need to cooperate with, but usually not oversee, such activities.
5.5.6 The transition to a fully operational system of physical ocean observations for GOOS/GCOS requires the implementation mechanisms to address questions associated with the routine acquisition of observations, real-time or near-real time data streams, the systematic application of quality control procedures, data delivery to the users, and a myriad of details associated with the management and control of a truly operational ocean observing system. This means that the implementation mechanisms will need to change their procedures or structures to address this new, or extended, coordinated operational role. They may need substantial additional resources to meet their responsibilities regarding the implementation of GOOS/GCOS.
5.5.7 The physical observations of GOOS/GCOS must meet special quality control standards in accordance with the GOOS principles and the requirements set by the GSC. These must be an integral part of the new structures. It must be recognized that these standards may vary for the same variable to meet different GOOS/GCOS objectives. In addition, those implementing mechanisms that have a broader responsibility than GOOS/GCOS will in general have other standards and quality control procedures that apply to the broader role. It will be an ongoing challenge to keep all these responsibilities separate and clear.
5.5.8 While the implementation mechanisms will be required to direct a significant part of their effort to the implementation of the physical ocean observations of GOOS/GCOS, it must be clearly understood that they all play a role in the coordination and management of ocean observations that are not part of the GOOS/GCOS plan, do not meet the GOOS/GCOS standards, and/or are not collected in accordance of other aspects of the GOOS Principles. This broader role must not be lost in the push to implement GOOS/GCOS ocean observations and the transition from research based to operational systems.
5.5.9 The eventual status of the IODE vis-à-vis the new structure needs to be resolved. In the case of the IODE, given its broad responsibilities, there is a case to be made for a separate but strongly linked status. All data, as long as its quality is somewhat understood, must be kept within the international ocean data management system to the extent feasible.
5.5.10 There will always be a need for the structures implementing the ocean observations of GOOS/GCOS to be at the forefront of knowledge concerning existing and potential instrumentation availability, accuracies, etc. This may involve instrument testing, intercalibration and standardization. There is also the need to consider whether efficiencies can be obtained by maximizing the types of observations being obtained from various platforms. As an integrating mechanism, this should also be an ongoing consideration of JCOMM.
5.5.11 Ocean observations have and will be taken on scales varying from global to local, for reasons varying from pure research to commercial endeavours, and for periods varying from long-term (for the foreseeable future) to that appropriate for a specific short-term project. Structures appropriate for all these activities are in place and others will be formed in the future. Some are local or regional in nature, others are large scale and/or global. It is incumbent on JCOMM to use whatever means it can to implement the physical ocean observations for GOOS/GCOS. However, the boundary between what is an integral part of GOOS/GCOS and what is not needs to be defined to the extent feasible if control over the operational system is to be maintained.. Guidance can be found in the GOOS Principles. For example, GOOS observations must satisfy the requirements stated in the GOOS/GCOS plan to meet certain specific needs. In addition, the data will be available as stated in a GOOS data management plan and they will be long-term, systematic and meet specified data quality standards.
5.5.12 The boundary between the observing system and the applications of its data also needs to be considered. The OOSDP report and GCOS have both considered this aspect of the observing system. A basic approach is that the observing system will provide products and assessments of the state of the ocean but not carry through applications. Thus, for ENSO predictions the observing system will provide descriptions of the SST, wind, etc fields, but not undertake the prediction. An application of the global observing system is to provide boundary conditions for the coastal oceans. This is surely part of GOOS/GCOS. An application of the observations yet to be specified by C-GOOS will be to provide external conditions or a larger-scale context for applications in local regions, bays, etc. some of which will be short term and commercial in nature. These are not part of GOOS/GCOS since in general they will not satisfy the GOOS Principles. Another aspect of this boundary is that the observing system must include analyses which indicate the accuracy of the observations being obtained. Poor data from the WWW can often by identified be its assimilation in NWP models. These boundaries are the joint concern of JCOMM and the GSC, need not be rigid, and will not remain fixed in time.
5.5.13 Coercing and encouraging participation in the implementation of the physical ocean observations of GOOS/GCOS is a function of the JCOMM and the implementation mechanisms. Formally it is also a function of I-GOOS, which contains the mechanism for formal national commitments to GOOS. The actions of JCOMM, I-GOOS and the GSC need to be well coordinated.
5.5.14 The non-physical parts of GOOS, as defined by the HOTO, LMR and C-GOOS panels, will also need to be implemented. This could be through an expanded version of JCOMM or perhaps more appropriately through mechanisms more suited to their special needs. This will need to be resolved and the best mechanism may change with time. It can be noted that for the most part the non-physical aspects of GOOS will have a more coastal/regional character than the physical aspects presently defined.
| 5.6 | RESPONSIBILITIES AND ACTIONS |
5.6.1 Based on the various analyses of Section 5, a number of specific and immediate actions for existing bodies and mechanisms can be identified. These are detailed in Annex VII and constitute the initial action list for the implementation of the GOOS/GCOS OOS by these bodies.
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| 6. | IMPLEMENTATION COORDINATION AND MANAGEMENT |
| 6.1 | OVERALL COORDINATION |
6.1.1 Coordination and oversight of implementation of the action plan will be formally undertaken by the new Joint WMO/IOC Technical Commission for Oceanography and Marine Meteorology (JCOMM). This body has been established through the merger of CMM and IGOSS, and is the reporting and coordinating mechanism for all other existing bodies of WMO and IOC concerned with operational ocean observations and data management. It has the powers and status of a WMO Technical Commission, and serves a role for the oceans analogous to that of the WMO Commission for Basic Systems (CBS), which coordinates, regulates and manages the World Weather Watch. JCOMM will report primarily to the Executive Councils of WMO and IOC, but will also interact directly with GSC, the GCOS Steering Committee and I-GOOS. The position and responsibilities of JCOMM in the overall coordination and management of GOOS/GCOS are illustrated in Annex VIII, while its terms of reference are given in Annex IX.
6.1.2 JCOMM is an intergovernmental body, whose role is to review and take decisions on policy, regulatory, coordination and programmatic issues, on the basis of draft decisions which have been prepared in advance by its subsidiary groups and/or rapporteurs. Normally it meets every four years. At least initially, the subsidiary groups will include, inter alia, either formally or as reporting bodies, all existing implementation mechanisms. These groups will meet as often as necessary to support programme implementation and within the available budgetary resources. In addition, JCOMM will have a small executive group (a Bureau or Advisory Working Group), with responsibilities to oversee and manage the work of JCOMM on an ongoing basis, including in particular the implementation of this action plan. This group will include representatives of the groups specifically involved in implementation of the plan, together with one or more representatives of the scientific design and oversight bodies for GOOS/GCOS. It is expected that the advisory group will work primarily by correspondence, but in the initial stages of implementation it may need to meet reasonably frequently, perhaps as often as every six months. The group will report to GSC and the GCOS Steering Committee, as well as to JCOMM.
| 6.2 | SCIENTIFIC GUIDANCE |
6.2.1 Initially, primary scientific guidance for the implementation of the action plan will be provided, through the GOOS Steering Committee and the GCOS Steering Committee, by the joint GOOS/GCOS/WCRP Ocean Observations Panel for Climate. This guidance will be delivered through the JCOMM Advisory Working Group and by direct interaction with the different implementation mechanisms (DBCP, SOOPIP, etc.) as appropriate.
6.2.2 Scientific guidance and the specification of detailed additional requirements will also be provided in due course by other GOOS and/or GCOS panels as their scientific, management and implementation plans develop.
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