3.1.1.1     CMM is intergovernmental, and a Constituent Body of WMO with regulatory (what Members shall do) and guidance (what Members should do) responsibilities in marine meteorology. Established in 1907, it has around 200 members (marine experts) nominated by 120 Members of WMO.

3.1.2.1     These cover the following areas:

• Services: marine meteorological, oceanographic, climatological, sea-ice. Services are both basic (safety of life at sea, environmental protection) and specialized (economic and commercial interests, such as offshore oil industry, ship routing, etc).
• Observations: primarily operation of the VOS, exchange and management of VOS data in both real time and delayed mode. Also coordination with other observing networks and with ocean satellite operations.
• Capacity building: advisory missions to developing countries; preparation of development projects; specialized short-term training courses (around 1 per year); development of longer-term training; training manuals and other publications; seminars and workshops; preparation of specialized software packages; development of marine forecast techniques.

3.1.3.1     These include:

• Manual on Marine Meteorological Services (part of WMO Technical Regulations)
• Guides:
  • Marine Meteorological Services
  • Wave Analysis and Forecasting
  • Applications of Marine Climatology
• Technical Reports: in two main series, approximately 2-3 published each year
• Handbooks: on marine meteorological services, offshore forecasting and sea-ice navigation services
• Components of other WMO publications, both operational and mandatory (e.g. WMO No. 9, Vol D; Manuals on Global Observing System, GTS, Codes, etc.).

3.1.4.1      The Commission has the following basic structure:

• Commission meets every 4 years in full session, 6 language interpretation, documents in 5 languages;
• Four main working groups (Advisory, Services, Observing Systems, Education and Training) which work mainly by correspondence (except advisory, which meets once in each intersessional period);
• Several specialized Sub-groups (Basic Services (GMDSS), Waves, Sea-Ice, Climatology, VOS, Ground-based Radar Ocean Sensing), which meet as often as necessary (1-4 times in each 4 years) and otherwise work by correspondence;
• Rapporteurs on specialized topics (e.g. ocean satellites, marine pollution).

3.1.5.1     At the present time there are approximately 7,200 VOS, operated by 50 Members, reporting basic marine meteorological and surface oceanographic variables at six-hourly intervals (the basic synoptic hours). Observations are made normally by ships officers, though there is increasing automation. The interface between meteorological services and the ships is through the international network of Port Meteorological Officers, around 200 maintained by the operating Members. Global coordination of VOS operations is done through a CMM Sub-group on the VOS, as well as regional and global seminars and workshops for PMOs. In some countries, the PMOs are also actively involved in supporting the SOOP. PMOs maintain, calibrate and often supply/replace instrumentation. They also provide relevant literature, stationery and computer software and train ships' officers. The 7,200 VOS are divided into three classes, depending on main sailing areas and quality/extent of meteorological instrumentation.

3.1.6.1     Real time. Observations are transmitted to shore in real time primarily via Inmarsat, in either SHIP or BUFR code, and routed directly to a small number of major meteorological services. Transmission costs are borne by these services. The observations are compiled into bulletins and distributed globally via the GTS. Real time monitoring of the quality of VOS reports is undertaken by several major meteorological centres, primarily the U.K. Meteorological Office which has formal WMO responsibilities for marine surface data. Results of this monitoring are compiled and distributed at monthly and six-monthly intervals to PMOs, who are expected to take follow-up actions to correct deficiencies. This has resulted in substantial improvements in quality since the introduction of the scheme.

3.1.6.2     Delayed mode. Observations are recorded on board in either hard copy or electronic logbooks, which are collected by PMOs of the recruiting countries at the end of each voyage. The reports are encoded in the international exchange format IMMT, minimum quality control standards applied by the recruiting services, and the data sent at 3- monthly intervals to two Global Collecting Centres (in Bracknell and Hamburg). These centres repeat and expand the quality control, compile global data sets, and forward these at regular intervals to data archival centres globally. The procedures for this data exchange and management, including the quality control standards, as well as regulations for the preparation of climatological summaries, form part of the WMO technical regulations (Manual on MMS) as the Marine Climatological Summaries Scheme. These procedures, inter alia, are maintained and updated by the CMM Sub-group on Marine Climatology.

3.1.6.3     The WMO Secretariat maintains a complete VOS Metadata Catalogue (WMO-No. 47). This contains full details of ships, instrumentation and communications. It is maintained in data base format, updated continuously from quarterly submissions. Copies are provided on request in both hard copy and electronic format, and the catalogue will shortly be accessible via the WMO web page.

3.1.7.1     Strengths: Responsibilities for regulation and guidance; long history and experience in management of an operational marine observing system and the collection, exchange and management of the data; global networks of experts; established management bodies; experience in and responsibilities for data applications and the provision of marine services, including direct interface with users; direct involvement of 120 national Meteorological Services worldwide.

3.1.7.2     Weaknesses: Experience and existing expertise limited primarily to the management and applications of marine meteorological and some surface oceanographic data and services; some system inertia, with long lead-times required to get regulations developed, approved and implemented.

3.2.1.1     The DBCP is a formal joint body of WMO and IOC, which was established in 1985 and reports directly to the Executive Councils of both organizations. It is self- supporting and employs a full time Technical Coordinator. It looks to other bodies and programmes of WMO/IOC for guidance on requirements.

3.2.1.2     The Panel members are representatives of all Members of WMO or Member States of IOC which are interested in participating in its activities. Presently the following countries participate actively in the DBCP activities (attend meetings, contribute to trust fund, etc.): Australia, Canada, France, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, United Kingdom, USA. Altogether, some 39 countries have nominated national focal points for the Panel.

3.2.2.1     Covering:

• Services: DBCP serves other programmes such as WWW, WCRP, GOOS, GCOS by trying to meet their requirements for oceanographic and atmospheric ocean surface in situ observations in real time or deferred time. Hence services are offered by those programmes, not by the DBCP directly.
• Observations: Drifting buoys and moored buoys deployed in the open ocean. Data are presently mostly being collected and processed through the Argos System (polar orbiting NOAA satellites). Data are disseminated in near-real-time onto the GTS. Data are also post-processed (e.g. surface velocity) and distributed in delayed mode for research purposes. Deployments in data sparse areas as a complement to other observing systems.
• Technical development and information exchange: It organizes workshops, and maintains a series of technical publications. DBCP maintains a Web Server (http://dbcp.nos.noaa.gov/). It encourages, supports, or initiates developments and testing of new observing techniques (e.g. barometer drifter, wind observation through ambient noise), implementation of quality control procedures (e.g. QC guidelines), implementation of new data processing systems (e.g. Argos GTS sub-system). It also encourages impact studies based on buoy data.

3.2.3.1     These include:

• DBCP technical document series: now 10 publications, approximately 3 per year.
• DBCP annual reports: one report per calendar year. DBCP annual report is now included in the DBCP document series.
• .DBCP session reports: one report per year.
• Components in other WMO publications.

3.2.4.1     The Panel has the following overall structure:

• DBCP meets once a year, normally in October. Working language is English.
• One chairman, two vice-chairmen. Traditionally, one vice-chairman deals with American continent issues, the other vice-chairman deals with the rest of the world. One Technical Coordinator. Working Groups and Rapporteurs may be created based upon actual needs (e.g. working group on encoding buoy data in BUFR).
• DBCP relies upon Action Groups for regional or global (for specific purpose) implementation. Present DBCP Action Groups are:
  • The European Group on Ocean Stations (EGOS)
  • The International Arctic Buoy Program (IABP)
  • The International Program for Antarctic Buoys (IPAB)
  • The International South Atlantic Buoy Programme (ISABP)
  • The International Buoy Program for the Indian Ocean (IBPIO)
  • The Global Drifter Programme (GDP)
  • The Tropical Atmosphere Ocean Array (TAO)

3.2.5.1     Approximately 1200 drifting buoys worldwide, of which 700, operated by 20 countries, are reporting basic marine meteorological and surface oceanographic variables at random intervals (real time, about 7 times a day) and synoptic times for certain buoys (slightly deferred time) onto the GTS. Majority of the drifting buoys are oceanographic drifters, all equipped with SST sensors, some equipped with barometers. Other buoys are either meteorological TOGA type buoys (air temperature, air pressure, SST, wind), or ice floats.

3.2.5.2   TAO array: Approximately 70 open ocean moored buoys deployed in the equatorial Pacific Ocean by 4 countries, reporting basic marine meteorological, surface and sub-surface oceanographic variables at hourly and daily intervals (slightly deferred time) onto the GTS. Two other PIRATA moored buoys presently deployed in the equatorial Atlantic Ocean for similar purpose with planned deployments of up to 12 buoys in 1999.

3.2.6.1     Real time. Observations are transmitted to shore in real time primarily via Argos, in raw form. Data are processed and buoys located by the Argos system. Automatic quality control checks are operated at Argos centres and the data then encoded in BUOY code, and routed directly to the NOAA/NWS and M‚t‚o-France for insertion onto the GTS. Data collection/location costs are paid by the operators, and report transmission costs to the GTS nodes are borne by Service Argos. The observations are compiled into bulletins and distributed globally via the GTS.

3.2.6.2     Real time monitoring of the quality of buoy reports is undertaken by several major meteorological centres, primarily the U.K. Meteorological Office which has formal WMO responsibilities for marine surface data. Quality Control Guidelines have been implemented by the DBCP for buoy data on the GTS. The service is managed and coordinated by the Technical Coordinator and operates through a network of Principal Meteorological or Oceanographic Centres (PMOC). QC Guidelines have resulted in substantial improvements in quality since the introduction of the scheme, and now form a part of the WMO Guide to the Global Observing System.

3.2.6.3     Delayed mode. Argos processed observations are collected by the buoy operators and Principal Investigators via the Argos system. Data can be obtained directly from them. For operators participating in DBCP Action Groups, data are post-processed, scientifically processed (e.g. computation of surface velocities based upon drogued drifter trajectories), quality controlled, and distributed usually within 6 months along with meta-data information on buoys to the Responsible Oceanographic Data Centre for Drifting Buoys (RNODC/DB) operated by the Marine Environmental Data Service (MEDS) in Canada.

3.2.6.4     The DBCP maintains a complete list of drifting and open ocean moored buoy programmes. WMO/Argos numbers cross reference list is published on a monthly basis via an Internet mailing list. DBCP Action Groups maintain their own archives and lists of buoys, including meta-data information on buoys (e.g. type of buoy, of instrumentation ).

3.2.7.1     Strengths: Responsibilities for guidance; long history and experience in management of an operational marine observing system and the collection, exchange and management of the data; global networks of experts (meteorological and oceanographic) directly involved in buoy operations; coordination involving all major buoy deployers; active in improving buoy technology and performance; established and proven data management system.

3.2.7.2     Weaknesses: Experience and existing expertise limited primarily to the management and applications of buoy programmes; financial involvement of only a small number of countries; does not initiate requirements, only services others; lack of coordination with other network components.

3.3.1.1     An operational system for the real-time collection, exchange and processing of oceanographic data, coordinated by an intergovernmental committee, the Joint IOC/WMO Committee for IGOSS. The committee reports directly to the Executive Councils of IOC and WMO, and has, inter alia, guidance (what Members should do) responsibilities in its areas of competence. The system was established as a joint activity in 1976, and operates through National Representatives for IGOSS nominated by 68 Member States of IOC/WMO.

3.3.2.1     Services: the IGOSS Data Processing and Services System (IDPSS) exists to make available to users quality-controlled and processed observational data, analyses and forecasts needed for marine activities. It operates through a network of 17 National Oceanographic Centres (NOCs), 11 Specialized Oceanographic Centres (SOCs), and two World Oceanographic Centres (WOCs). Lists of products available through these centres are published annually by the joint Secretariats in an Information Service Bulletin.

3.3.2.2     Observations: the IGOSS Observing System comprises primarily the operation of the Ship-of-Opportunity Programme (SOOP), and the exchange and management of SOOP data in both real time and delayed mode. It includes also the operation of the IGOSS Sea Level Programme (ISLP), as well as coordination with other observing networks and with ocean satellite operations. The IGOSS Telecommunications Arrangements cover both facilities for the collection of oceanographic data from ships at sea (most normally now through Inmarsat), as well as the real-time exchange of these data, primarily over the GTS. To this end, IGOSS has developed and maintains a number of data exchange codes (BATHY, TESAC, TRACKOB), and contributes to the development and maintenance of others (BUFR, CREX).

3.3.2.3     Capacity building: the VCPs of WMO and IOC are used, where possible, to develop and expand the capabilities of Member States to participate in and benefit from IGOSS. The system also incorporates the evaluation and development of new instrumentation and software; the development of capabilities for measuring new oceanographic variables; and the optimization and integration of sampling with similar measurements from other observing systems. IGOSS also maintains an extensive data flow monitoring service, with monitoring reports provided regularly to operators and IDPSS centres.

3.3.4.1     The Joint IOC/WMO Committee for IGOSS is an intergovernmental body, which meets every four years, with interpretation and documentation in four languages. Around 50 participants from 20-25 countries attend sessions.

3.3.4.2     The committee has three main subsidiary bodies:

3.3.7.1     Strengths: Operational system, with established facilities, procedures, codes, formats and protocols for operational collection, exchange and processing of oceanographic data; responsibilities for guidance; history and experience in management of marine observing systems and the collection, exchange and management of the data; global networks of experts;

3.3.7.2     Weaknesses: Experience and procedures to date limited primarily to sub-surface temperature and salinity data; until recently, lack of clearly defined requirements for data and services; limited involvement of Member States; no funding to maintain observation networks operationally; no regulatory responsibilities.

3.4.1.1     SOOPIP is an Intergovernmental subsidiary body under the Joint IOC/WMO Integrated Global Ocean Services System (IGOSS) with guidance (what Members should do) responsibilities in upper ocean thermal sampling observed from "Ships-of-Opportunity" (SOO); established 1996. Around 15 members (oceanographic experts) nominated by ten Members of IOC and WMO.

3.4.2.1     Services: no specific services responsibilities. Service responsibilities are undertaken by national oceanographic and meteorological organizations and centres utilizing the data, and under the auspices of international programs such as IGOSS, Global Temperature Salinity Profile Project (GTSPP), World Climate Research Program (WCRP), etc.

3.4.2.2     Observations: primarily operation of the SOO, exchange and management of SOO data in both real time and delayed mode. Also coordination with other observing networks and with ocean satellite operations.

3.4.2.3     Capacity building: evaluation and development of new instrumentation and software; development of capabilities for measuring other oceanographic variables from SOO (e.g. surface and subsurface salinity, plankton, etc.); optimization and integration of sampling with similar measurements from other observing systems.

3.4.3.1

• Manuals and Guides: IOC Manuals and Guides series; WOCE Data Handbook.
• Newsletters: e.g. International World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) Newsletter.
• Technical Reports: UNESCO Technical Papers in Marine Science series; IOC Reports of Meetings of Experts and Equivalent Bodies; technical report series of contributing organizations (e.g. CSIRO Marine Laboratories Report series, NOAA Technical Memorandums, etc.).
• Scientific Papers: e.g. Journal of Deep Sea Research.
• Components of other IOC and WMO publications, both operational and mandatory (e.g. WMO No. 9, Vol D; Manuals on Global Observing System, GTS, Codes, etc.).

3.4.4.1     SOOPIP is responsible for overseeing the implementation of field programmes and associated data flow and quality control; meets every 2 years in full session, with documents in English only.

3.4.4.2     There is one main working group (SOOP Task Team for Instrumentation and Quality Control (STT/IQC) - formerly Task Team on Quality Control and Automated Systems (TT/QCAS)) which works mainly by correspondence, and meets in conjunction with SOOPIP. Ad hoc groups are formed as required.

3.4.4.3     Scientific guidance is received from the Joint GCOS-GOOS-WCRP Ocean Observations Panel for Climate (OOPC) and the CLIVAR Upper Ocean Panel (UOP).

3.4.4.4     The SOOP Management Committee (SMC), co-sponsored by IGOSS, GOOS, GCOS and the WCRP, is charged with the responsibility of managing the resources made available by contributing nations to meet the scientific requirements provided to it from GOOS, GCOS and the WCRP.

3.4.5.1     There are approximately 100 dedicated SOO, operated by 7 Members, which report upper ocean temperature along specified routes at sampling intervals developed under the Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere (TOGA) and WOCE programmes of WCRP. These sampling requirements have been designed for climate monitoring and prediction applications (the main support function for SOOP at present), and have since been endorsed by the WCRP Ocean Observing System Development Panel (OOSDP). Each vessel is equipped with a data acquisition system provided by the operating agency. These systems vary depending upon the agency, but generally meet agreed standards. Observations (such as the deployment of expendable bathythermographs - XBTs) are made normally by ships officers on a voluntary basis, though there is increasing automation in some underway systems such as used for measuring sea surface temperature (SST) and sea surface salinity (SSS). Observations are also utilized from other "opportunistic" vessels (navy, fishing, research, etc.) not formally participating in the programme. Interface between oceanographic agencies and met services and the ships is through designated Ship Greeters from the contributing national agencies and occasionally the international network of Port Meteorological Officers. Ship Greeters and PMOs maintain, calibrate and often supply/replace instrumentation. They also provide relevant literature, stationery and computer software, train ships' officers, and generally help to provide the feedback required to maintain the volunteer observer support and motivation.

3.4.6.1     Real time: The low resolution (inflection point) realizations of the observations are transmitted to shore in real time primarily via satellite (e.g. GOES, METEOSAT, Argos, and Inmarsat systems), as either BATHY or TESAC messages, and routed directly to a small number of major oceanographic and meteorological services. Transmission costs are borne by these services. The observations are compiled into bulletins and distributed globally via the GTS under the Integrated Global Ocean Services System (IGOSS). Real time monitoring of the quality and data flow of SOO reports is undertaken by the participating programme operators, WMO, and some of the major oceanographic centres, primarily the Marine Environmental Data Service (MEDS) in Canada which has formal GTSPP responsibilities for real-time upper ocean data quality control. The IGOSS Operations Coordinator undertakes and helps support these monitoring activities. Results of the monitoring are compiled and distributed at monthly intervals to the programme operators, GTS centres and SOOPIP, who are expected to take follow-up actions to correct deficiencies. This has resulted in substantial improvements in quality since the introduction of the scheme.

3.4.6.2     Delayed mode: Full resolution realizations of the observations are recorded on diskette by the onboard data acquisition systems, and collected by the Ship Greeters and/or PMOs of the recruiting countries at the end of each voyage. The data are encoded in the international exchange format MEDSASCII, quality control standards applied by the operating agencies, and the data sent at 12-monthly intervals to the respective Regional National Oceanographic Data Centre (RNODC) for forwarding to the World Data Centres (WDCAs - USA, Russia). These centres repeat the quality control, compile global data sets, and forward these at regular intervals to Science Centres (Indian Ocean - CSIRO, Atlantic - AOML/NOAA, Pacific - SIO) for scientific quality control and analysis. The resultant value added, high quality data sets then replace the data in the global archives. The procedures for this data exchange and management, including the quality control standards, have been developed and maintained by WOCE and the GTSPP of IGOSS and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Data Exchange (IODE). SOOPIP, with the assistance of the IGOSS Operations Coordinator, undertakes six-monthly monitoring of the data coverage to ensure optimal deployment of available resources under the agreed sampling requirements and recognized priorities (in the first instance in support of seasonal-interannual climate forecasting).

3.4.6.3     The IGOSS Operations Coordinator maintains information on SOOP, regularly up-dated lists of participating operators and vessels, ocean basin data coverage by line, and data flow statistics on a Web site under the IGOSS Home Page.

3.4.7.1     Strengths: Responsibilities for guidance; long history and experience in management of research marine observing systems and the collection, exchange and management of the data; global networks of experts; utilization of existing operational mechanisms developed under IGOSS and IODE; utilization of existing operational infrastructures such as the GTS; strong links being established between present and past research organizations, which were involved in the development of SOOP under TOGA and WOCE, and present operational organizations wishing to, or currently operationally supporting SOOP; established management bodies; many of the present members of SOOPIP are active scientific experts in the field; strong links to scientific advisory bodies; scientifically designed network of observations; strong capabilities for instrumentation development and evaluation.

3.4.7.2     Weaknesses: No regulatory responsibility (i.e. not formal WMO Commission or equivalent); limited funding support for members; no funding for permanent staff in support of SOOPIP activities and functions (e.g. presently no ongoing support for the IGOSS Operations Coordinator position); no funding support for ongoing operational quality monitoring activities or development projects (costs born by participating organizations - not always possible, and often low priority); some system inertia within Intergovernmental bodies, with long lead-times required to get recommendations approved and implemented; direct links to and coordination with other upper ocean observing systems and implementation bodies weak; need for increased national, operational organization participation, with some research organizations still tentatively supporting the programme without ongoing permanent funding or mandate; insufficient resources to undertake complete sampling requirements; funding to Science Centres to ensure scientific integrity of the data (including historical data bases which contain corrupt data) not firm, with the Pacific Ocean Science Centre (JEDA) at SIO already closed.

3.5.1.1     GLOSS is an operational system under the auspices of IOC. GLOSS was established by the IOC in 1985 to provide a world-wide mechanism for monitoring global levels, and also to help to develop national capabilities to assess and anticipate changing risks. The basis of the first GLOSS Implementation Plan was the establishment of a network of approximately 300 tide gauge stations distributed along continental coastlines and throughout each of the world's island groups. Since 1990, several major technical developments have taken place, most notably in the ability of satellite radar altimetry to provide reliable and routine measurements of near- global sea level changes. A new Implementation Plan (1997) provides a complete re-assessment of requirements for GLOSS, together with specifications for each component of the system.

3.5.1.2     GLOSS is managed by means of a Technical Secretary at IOC, a set of National and Regional GLOSS Contacts and an international GLOSS Group of Experts.

3.5.2.1     Responsibilities consist of the provision of an ongoing overview of sea level recording worldwide. This includes: monitoring the status of gauges within the 'GLOSS Core Network' and scientific and regional sub-networks (including the GLOSS-LTT network for long-term trends; GLOSS-ALT for altimeter calibration; and GLOSS-OC for ocean circulation monitoring); provision of advice and technical support to gauge operators where required; supply of training to sea level scientists and technicians; continuous linkage with related technical areas such as altimetry, GPS and absolute gravity; and definition and implementation of data flow mechanisms.

3.5.2.2     Responsibilities include ensuring that products are as relevant and as focussed as possible both for scientific research purposes (e.g. study of sea level changes under climate change) and practical coastal studies. For the former, suggestions for formal mechanisms for ongoing scientific advice interchange have been made between GLOSS, OOPC and CLIVAR UOP. For the latter, the development of regional GLOSS activities (IOCARIBE is a good example) is a major means of addressing requirements.

3.5.2.3     Services (see GLOSS Implementation Plan for detailed information):

• Data sets provision - Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level; University of Hawaii databank; Southern Ocean Sea Level Centre at Flinders University; 'Fast' and 'Delayed Mode' WOCE Sea Level Centres including ACCLAIM data bank at the BODC delayed mode centre; IAPSO tidal constants at PSMSL; IGOSS sea level anomaly maps in quasi-real time (similar delayed maps from PSMSL).
• Newsletters etc - GLOSS Bulletin (web) and Afro-America GLOSS News (paper and web). Compilation of GLOSS-related publications and keyword search service at PSMSL.
• Capacity building - Since 1985, over 15 GLOSS training courses have been held in different parts of the world including UK, France, Brazil, China, India, Argentina. Plans are being made for two courses in different continents in 1998.

3.5.3.1     

• Manuals and Guides: Two manuals on 'How to Operate Tide Gauges'. A third is planned on 'How to Operate GPS at Gauges' following the IGS/PSMSL GPS Workshop at JPL in March 1997.
• Three workshop reports on operating gauges in environmentally hostile areas, and in polar areas.
• Two workshop reports on new geodetic techniques (GPS, absolute gravity etc.)
• UNESCO Report for small island states.
• Regional GLOSS/IOC meetings reports.
• PSMSL etc. data holdings reports.
• Tidal analysis software reports from UH, PSMSL and NTF.
• Training course reports following each course.

3.5.3.2     For a full list of GLOSS-specific publications, see the file 'gloss.pub' on the PSMSL ftp disk. This excludes the wide range of scientific publications flowing from the GLOSS-related sea level data sets. The scientific assessments of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change represent an important use of GLOSS/PSMSL data sets.

3.5.4.1     The GLOSS GE has hitherto met approximately every two years, usually alongside a workshop on a relevant technical or oceanographic subject. Future plans are for the complete group to continue to meet at a similar frequency but to take advantage of scientific conferences for at least a regional sub-group to meet every year. For example, the last full GE meeting was March 1997; a West Pacific meeting is planned for July 1998 in Taiwan alongside the WPGM.

3.5.4.2     Subject to the approval of IOC for the suggested GLOSS/OOPC/CLIVAR scientific study group (which can be considered in a GLOSS context as a sub-group of the GE), meetings will be held of this group typically annually. Technical sub-committees of GLOSS (e.g. a GLOSS Data Coordination Panel, or a Technical Committee recommended by the IGS/PSMSL GPS Workshop) will be based first on email exchange, then meet as opportune. Technical consultants for GLOSS have been proposed but have not been obtained so far due to limited funding.

3.5.4.3     Day to day development of GLOSS is almost entirely undertaken at present by the Chairman GGE, the present IOC Technical Secretary being a temporary appointment. A permanent position is required at IOC for this important activity. Languages used for GLOSS are primarily English; the AAGN has articles mostly in Spanish and Portuguese. Training courses have been held in the language appropriate for the host country and for attendees.

3.5.5.1     The PSMSL data set contains data from over 1750 stations of which approximately 1000 are currently operational. The IOC GLOSS system ensures the establishment of a high quality subset of these stations, flagged for global purposes, as far as possible with common operating and reporting standards, with guarantees of longevity.

3.5.5.2     There are 287 stations in the present 'GLOSS Core Network' of which 90 percent are operational. Most do not have real-time data reporting. Some are in hostile areas (e.g. Antarctica) with data loggers inspected only once a year. Only a handful have GPS at or near the gauge in order to monitor land movements and provide a calibration system for altimetry.

3.5.5.3     Mechanisms for data exchange of monthly and annual mean values of sea level, stored at the PSMSL and the basis of most studies of long term sea level change for climate change or geological movements, are long established via FAGS/ICSU. The original requirement for data from GLOSS sites was also only the delivery of monthly and annual data to the PSMSL.

3.5.5.4     In the new GLOSS Implementation Plan, we now expect contributing organizations to make original (typically hourly) data available. These higher frequency data sets are needed (a) because there is interesting oceanography at higher frequencies, (b) for altimeter calibration and (c) for better quality control. One or more Archiving Centres (e.g. PSMSL) will synthesize the data sets. This requires common standards for formatting and quality control, hence the need for a GLOSS Data Coordination Panel.

3.5.6.5     Approximately 100 gauges are capable of quasi-real time reporting, e.g. those providing data to the 'Fast' WOCE Centre. 'Real' real-time reporting, for example for storm surge or tsunami warning, is a feature of specialized, usually regional, activities which form important components of regional GLOSS activities. As modems, cellular systems etc. become cheaper and easier, real time reporting will become more common, with benefits to data quality.

3.5.6.6     Methods of quality control of tide gauge data are contained in two main sets of documents: (1) two manuals on operating tide gauges produced in the IOC Manuals and Guides series, and (2) the paper 'Developments in Sea Level Data Management and Exchange' by Lesley Rickards (BODC) and Bernard Kilonsky (UHSLC) which was presented at the Ocean Data Symposium, Dublin Ireland (October, 1997). The paper describes the methods followed for data banking of WOCE sea level information, which are essentially those of GLOSS.

3.5.6.7     Quality control is also addressed within the software packages for tidal analysis available from the University of Hawaii, the Australian National Tidal facility and from PSMSL. The methods used in all packages include tested methods for tidal analysis, inspection of residuals and 'buddy' checking between stations.

3.5.6.8     The issue of quality control is the main reason why the GLOSS Implementation Plan now requires that original GLOSS sea level data be sent to an International Centre as well as the monthly and annual means to the PSMSL. In addition, there is much interesting oceanography to be studied with high frequency data and all data should be preserved in several centres for security.

3.5.6.1     Strengths: In the US and Europe there are many experts in the use of sea level data for scientific and coastal studies. The development of altimetry missions has stimulated use of gauge data for altimeter calibration and for analysis.

3.5.6.2     Weaknesses: the GLOSS training courses have shown that, while some countries can be trained and are very proficient technically in the acquisition of sea level data, there is often limited scientific experience to know how to make maximum use of them. A further concern is that much of the present good status of GLOSS has been achieved through research programmes such as TOGA and WOCE, and that funds may not continue to maintain that status in future. Significant investment is required at many sites to bring gauges to modern standards of real- time reporting and with, where desirable, GPS equipment (following recommendations of an IGS/PSMSL GPS workshop at JPL in March 1997).

3.6.1.1.     The TAO Implementation Panel (TIP) has been formed to define strategies that will ensure uninterrupted implementation and long-term maintenance of the TAO array. The TAO Panel was established in 1992 under auspices of the international Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere (TOGA) program. At the end of TOGA in 1994, sponsorship of the panel shifted jointly to the World Climate Research Program's international Climate Variability and Predictability programme (CLIVAR), the IOC/WMO/UNEP/ICSU Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) and Global Climate Observing System (GCOS) programmes.

3.6.1.2.     Most TIP members are representatives of Member States of IOC and WMO which are actively involved in TAO activities. Presently institutes and agencies from the United States, Japan, France and Brazil, and also Taiwan, participate in TAO by contributing critical resources (including ship time, specialized mooring hardware or instrumentation, or funding for operation), to the maintenance and/or expansion of the moored array.

3.6.2.1.     Services. TIP coordinates technical and logistical support from institutions participating in the maintenance of the array. It also cooperates with organizations such as the WOCE/CLIVAR planning committees to ensure an integrated approach to tropical observational programs. Reports are made regularly to the GCOS/COOS Project Offices and the CLIVAR Scientific Steering Group on the status of the TAO array.

3.6.2.2.     Observations. TIP ensures the rapid dissemination of TAO data to serve both operational and research applications. Near real time surface meteorological and oceanographic data from the tropical Pacific and Atlantic Oceans are provided via Argos on the GTS network in BUOY format to operational weather centers (WWW). TAO works with Argos and DBCP to quality control and monitor GTS transmissions. Data are also provided in near real time to the research community (GOOS/GCOS/CLIVAR) on anonymous ftp and on a Web server. High resolution data are distributed in delayed mode for research purposes.

3.6.2.3.     Technical development and information exchange. TIP promotes new technology and instrumentation for moored buoy applications, impact studies based on buoy data, exchanges of technical information and training between participating countries, and participates in data quality control procedures.

3.6.4.1.     The TAO Implementation Panel meets yearly (September- November) and the working language is English.

3.6.4.2.     Membership of the TAO Implementation Panel will be by invitation of the Global Ocean Observing System Project Office, based on recommendations made by the TAO Panel or its sponsors (GOOS/GCOS/CLIVAR). Categories of membership are:

• Executive Committee:One representative from each country actively supporting the TAO Array. The TAO Panel chairman and vice-chairman will serve as national representatives on the executive committee. Responsibilities of the executive committee include: coordinating intersessional activities, recommending membership changes, organizing panel meetings, reporting to parent bodies, etc.
• Members:Individuals representing institutions (or agencies) that provide resources such as ships, mooring hardware and/or technician time to maintain the TAO array; or individuals having special expertise in analysis and/or interpretation of TAO and other ocean-climate data sets.

3.6.4.3.     The TAO project is managed by NOAA's Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory in Seattle, Washington, USA.

3.6.5.1.     The TAO array in the tropical Pacific consists of nearly 70 moored ATLAS and current meter buoys, which transmit via satellite basic marine meteorological, surface, and subsurface data in near-real time. Moorings are typically deployed for a one year period after which the instrumentation is recovered for calibration and refurbishment. The moorings are located between 8N and 8S from 95W to 137E and are maintained primarily through the efforts of the United States, Japan, and Taiwan. Approximately 350 days at sea are required to maintain the array.

3.6.5.2.     The PIRATA array in the tropical Atlantic consists of 5 ATLAS moorings at present with planned deployments of up to 12 buoys in 1999. These moorings are being supported by the United States, France, and Brazil.

3.6.5.3.     Standard sensors consists of surface winds, air temperature, relative humidity, sea surface temperature and ten subsurface temperatures in the upper 500 meters. Ocean currents are also measured at five sites along the equator. Additional sensors including rainfall, radiation, and surface salinity can be added as required by collaborative programs.

3.6.5.4.     Engineering developments continue to incorporate new technology in order to improve data quality and data return from the array.

3.6.5.5.     TAO is now officially supported in the United States by operational funds instead of research funds. This funding is expected to continue for the foreseeable future.

3.6.6.1.     Real time. Observations from the TAO moorings are transmitted to shore in real time through Argos. Data are processed and encoded into BUOY code by Service Argos, using calibrations and algorithms supplied by PMEL. Daily averaged subsurface data and several hourly values of surface data are available in real time each day from the moorings. The TAO Project Office works with the Data Buoy Coordination Panel (DBCP) and Service Argos in quality controlling the real time TAO data. In addition to the GTS data, TAO data are also processed and quality controlled by the TAO Project Office and made available to the community via the World Wide Web (http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/toga-tao/ and http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/pirata/) and anonymous ftp. Quality control checks are performed daily to detect instrumentation failures or calibration problems.

3.6.6.2.     Delayed mode. On-line archives are maintained for all TAO sites. High resolution data (e.g., hourly surface data files) are obtained after each buoy is recovered and the data read from onboard storage. These data are processed, quality controlled, and made available via the Web and anonymous ftp within two months after recovery. Current data from subsurface ADCP moorings and traditional current meters are also processed and made available upon completion. Yearly submittals have been made of all TAO data to the USA National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC).

3.6.7.1.     Strengths. Long history and experience in data collection and dissemination from moored buoys in the tropical oceans; international oceanographers and meteorologists involved with strong links to the research community; active in improving buoy performance and technology.

3.6.7.2.     Weaknesses. Inability to control damage to the moored array caused by vandalism; limited participation of Member Countries due in part to specialized equipment and technology that is not easily transferable.